LC 3071 
.C6 
1922a 
Copy 1 



Chinese Students in America: 
Qualities Associated with Their Success 



By 

JENNINGS PINKWEI CHU 



Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the 

Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of 

Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy 

Columbia University 



Published by 

tgeatfjer* College, Columbia $imber£ttp 

New York City 
1922 



Chinese Students in America: 
Qualities Associated with Their Success 



By 
JENNINGS PINKWEI CHU 



Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the 

Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of 

Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy 

Columbia University 



Published by 

tEeatfjers College, Columbia Unioemtp 

New York City 
1922 



Cobvright, 1Q22, by Jennings Pinkwei Chu 



l£* 






" 19*2 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The author wishes to acknowledge his thanks to many Chinese 
students in America for their willing co-operation in supplying a 
large part of the necessary material for this study. To the authori- 
ties of Tsing Hua College, Peking, and to the Directors of the Chi- 
nese Educational Mission and of the Educational Bureau of the 
Chinese Ministry of Education, Washington, D. C, he feels greatly 
indebted for their permission to make use of many otherwise inacces- 
sible records. He is grateful to Professor Edward L. Thorndike and 
Professor Truman L. Kelley for much guidance in devising statistical 
methods; to Dr. M. R. Trabue and Dr. I. L. Kandel for valuable 
suggestions; and to Mr. J. S. Orleans and Miss Elva Wald, both of 
the Institute of Educational Research of Teachers College, for tech- 
nical assistance. But especially to Professor Edward L. Thorndike, 
under whom the investigation was undertaken and whose stimu- 
lating criticisms and timely encouragement have been both a guid- 
ance and an inspiration, the author wishes to express his deep grati- 
tude and indebtedness. 

Jennings P. Chu 

New York City, 
April, 1922 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Statement of the Problem '. . . i 

II. Experimental Material 4 

1 . The Subjects 

2. The Data 

The Judgment of Associates 
Individual Records 
Test Scores in English 
High School Marks in China 
College Marks in America 

III. The Judgment of Associates 11 

1 . Transmutation of Rankings into Sigma Positions 

2. Comparison of the Judgments in English with Test Scores in 
English: the Validity of the Judgments in the Knowledge of 
English 

3. The Reliability of the Judgment: Self-correlation 

4. Raw Correlations 

5. Correlations Corrected for Attenuation 

6. Final Composite Correlations 

7. Interpretation of Results 

IV. Comparison of the Judgments with High School 
Marks 34 

V. Comparison of the Judgments with College Marks 38 

1. The Judgments in Scholarship and General Averages in 
Colleges 

2. High School General Averages Compared with College General 
Averages 

VI. Comparison of the Judgments with Individual 

Records 40 

1. A Scale for Judging the Activities of Chinese Students in 
America 

2. A Discussion on the Validity of the Judgment of Associates 

VII. Years Spent in America as a Factor 47 

VIII. Conclusions and Suggestions 51 

Appendix 54 



Chinese Students in America: 
Qualities Associated with Their Success 

CHAPTER I 

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 

For the past fifty years, China has made a practice of sending 
students to the United States to be educated in American colleges 
and universities. Many psychological problems have arisen in con- 
nection with this practice, which, fundamental and important as 
they are, have never been solved or even explicitly formulated. 
A solution of them, however, would greatly aid in the improvement 
of methods for the preparation and selection of these students. 

With the steady growth of the number of Chinese students in 
America and with the increasing emphasis placed upon the value of 
their American education in recent years, these psychological prob- 
lems have come more and more to the fore . The need of a logical 
statement of some of them and of a scientific attempt towards their 
solution is manifest and pressing. Fortunately, the science of 
mental measurement, which has recently made great progress in 
America, will directly lend itself to the solution of these problems 
and indirectly open a new field in China for educational experimenta- 
tion, of which the present investigation may be a beginning. 

The problem in connection with the education of Chinese students 
in America emanates from a consideration of their success as a result 
of that education. Briefly stated, it comprises the following: 

i . What should be considered as success of a Chinese student in 
America? 

2. What are some of the qualities associated with it? 

3. How are they related to it? 

4. How are they related to one another? 

5. How can the optimum amount of success be secured in the 
light of our knowledge of its relationship to the qualities associated 
with it? 

6. What should be the proper method for the preparation and 
selection of the prospective Chinese student in America? 



2 Chinese Students in America 

Questions I and 2 will be answered in the following paragraphs. 
It is in an attempt to answer questions 3, 4, 5, and 6 that the present 
investigation is undertaken. 

Before any attempt is made to find out the relationship between 
success and the qualities associated with it, the first two questions 
proposed in the statement of the problem need to be answered. 
First, what should be considered as success of a Chinese student in 
America? Elusive and comprehensive as it may seem at first sight, 
success of a student may be said to be of two kinds: academic and 
non-academic. For this study, scholarship has been chosen as 
indicative of academic success and leadership as indicative of non- 
academic success. This twofold classification is unavoidable, inas- 
much as the career of a student is devoid of any professional special- 
ization that will give a single indication of his total life success. 

A complete answer to the second question — What are some of 
the qualities associated with success? — presents almost insuperable 
difficulties. The total qualities associated with success, be it in the 
form of scholarship or leadership, are perhaps so numerous and over- 
lapping that any attempt to list them short of an exhaustive study 
of all desirable human traits by means of regression equations would 
seem to fail in its purpose. We can enumerate off-hand under schol- 
arship, for instance, such qualities as intelligence, industry, ambi- 
tion, language ability and concentration, and under leadership such 
qualities as personality, character, initiative, decisiveness and force. 
These qualities in each group, however, overlap a great deal and 
our knowledge of them is at present so inadequate that it would 
seem difficult, if not impossible, to measure them objectively. 

On the other hand, knowledge of English and knowledge of Chi- 
nese have been chosen as qualities associated with both scholarship 
and leadership, and this for various reasons. In the first place, in 
the judgment of the writer from the beginning of his investigation, 
these two qualities might be uncorrelated or independent of each 
other. This was found to be the case, as will be shown in the body 
of the thesis. Second, these qualities can be objectively measured, 
it being possible to get measures of them by means of tests and 
school marks in these languages. Third, in actual practice, the 
selection of a prospective Chinese student in America has been 
largely determined by his achievement in the knowledge of English 
and Chinese, as is so well exemplified by the competitive examina- 



Statement of the Problem 3 

tion held in China for the purpose of selecting such students, in 
which tests of a knowledge of these two languages constitute two- 
thirds of the requirements. 

This, then, brings out a more technical statement of the problem, 
namely, a study of the intercorrelation between scholarship, leader- 
ship, knowledge of English and knowledge of Chinese among Chinese 
students in American colleges and universities, based on such objec- 
tive data as will be presently described . 



CHAPTER II 
EXPERIMENTAL MATERIAL 

I. THE SUBJECTS 

The subjects for this investigation were 664 Chinese students in 
America distributed among the following college and university 
centres: the number in parentheses after each, college or group of 
colleges is the number of subjects from that college or group of col- 
leges studied in this investigation: Baldwin Wallace College (9); 
University of Chicago (35); University of Cincinnati (6); Coe Col- 
lege, Iowa (8); Cornell University (46); University of Detroit (11); 
George Washington University (14); Grinnell College (4); Harvard 
University (37); Johns Hopkins University and University of Mary- 
land (10); Leland Stanford Jr. University (11); Lehigh University 
(9); Marquette University, Milwaukee (14); Massachusetts Insti- 
tute of Technology (26); Michigan University (45); University of 
Minnesota (12); New York University (20); Northwestern Uni- 
versity (7); Oberlin College (20); Ohio State University (17); 
Oregon Agriculture College (7); University of Pennsylvania (22); 
Pomona College (6); Purdue University (18); University of Roch- 
ester (5); Schenectady Chinese Students' Club (3); Syracuse Uni- 
versity (18); University of Washington, Seattle (14); University of 
Wisconsin (6); Yale University (15) and a group of girl students 
from Vassar College, Wellesley College, Bryn Mawr College and 
Mount Holyoke College amounting to (9). In the accompanying 
table is shown the distribution in these American colleges and uni- 
versities of the Chinese students embodied in this study: 

NUMBER OF STUDENTS NUMBER OF COLLEGES 

over 50 1 

40-49 3 

30-39 3 

20-29 4 

10-19 12 

4-9 14 

37 



Experimental Material 5 

It must be remembered that the numbers of students in the fore- 
going table are the ones that were embodied in this study, while 
the actual numbers in these colleges are in many cases a little larger 
and in a few cases twice as large. 

Among these students are included both the undergraduate and 
graduate students. High school students and those engaged in full 
time teaching are excluded from this study. They all represent 
students from China, of whom two-fifths depend, for their mainte- 
nance, upon either government or special scholarships and the other 
three-fifths upon their parents or relatives or upon themselves. In 
the analysis of facts, no distinction is made as to the course of study 
they take, or age and sex, or maintenance. 

2. THE DATA 

In order to make a study of these subjects in respect to their 
scholarship, leadership, knowledge of English and knowledge of 
Chinese, it was found necessary to gather all the relevant data then 
available. Inasmuch as the crux of the problem consists in the 
finding of the proper relationships of these four qualities rather than 
any objective measurement of them according to certain standard- 
ized criteria, the effort was focused upon a procedure whereby such 
relationships as should exist between them could be best secured. 
Therefore, the judgment of associates in the form of rankings was 
used, with all possible protection against certain defects inherent 
in the method, and validated by such other possible measures then 
available as high school marks, college marks, tests, and personal 
records. These sources of data were secured in the following 
manner. 

The Judgment of Associates. The fact that the Chinese students 
in America generally group themselves in different college centres 
in small numbers, all associated closely with each other, and there- 
fore thoroughly acquainted with one another, offers an opportunity 
seldom found elsewhere for ranking. For this study, in the case of 
those centres where the number of students exceeded twenty- four, 
the total number was divided into several convenient groups on the 
basis of mutual acquaintance or other affiliations. For the purpose 
of ranking, a number larger than twenty-four would be too unwieldy 
for any judge to make the ranking accurate, and a group smaller 
than four could hardly make the ranking significant. Consequently, 



6 Chinese Students in America 

the size of groups in this study varies from four to twenty-four. The 
accompanying table will show the distribution of the number of 
groups of these 664 Chinese Students in America. 



SIZE OF RANKING 


GROUP 


NO. 


OF GROUPS 


(i.e. Xo of Students Rated) 






20-24 






8 


15-19 






12 


IO-14 






14 


5- 9 






26 


Less than 5 






4 

64 



The form of the original directions for the ranking sheet is repro- 
duced here. 

Directions for the Ranking Sheet 

On the next page you will find a list of names of Chinese students in your 
locality or school, whom I presume you know well. Look the list through. If 
there are persons whom you do not know well, omit their names by marking a 
cross (X) after each. Omit also your own name by marking a cross (X) after it. 
These marked names will not be considered. Having done so, please observe the 
following procedure: 

1. Look through the rest of the names. Decide which one in your judgment 
would be the best in Scholarship (See Definitions below), and put a figure "1" 
after his or her name in the Scholarship column. 

2. Next decide which one would be the second best in Scholarship and put a 
figure "2" after the name in the same column. Next decide which one would be 
the third best in Scholarship and put a figure "3". Continue the same process 
until the Scholarship column has in it figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 
so on, representing the ranks of these students from best to poorest in Scholarship. 

3. Proceed likewise with each of the remaining columns, considering the rank 
each person would have in Leadership, Knowledge of English, and Knowledge of 
Chinese. (See Definitions below.) 

Definitions 

Scholarship: means ability in studies, as shown by school standing, degrees, 

honors, and other signs or evidences. 
Leadership: means ability to take initiative, willingness to assume responsibility 

and ability to inspire confidence in others. 
Knowledge of English: means knowledge to understand printed and oral English 

and to express well orally and in writing. 
Knowledge of Chinese: means knowledge to understand printed Chinese and to 

express well in writing. 



Experimental Material ~ 

RANKING SHEET 

The ranking sheet is divided into five vertical columns, headed 
with the following captions: Name, Scholarship. Leadership, 
Knowledge of English, and Knowledge of Chinese, as shown on 
page 14. in which it has been filled with rankings and their transmu- 
tations. 

In April, 1920, these ranking sheets were sent with return enve- 
lopes to 926 Chinese students grouped under 62 college or university 
centres. Out of these, 465 or a little over 50 per cent returns were 
received. This means that on the average each person is ranked or 
judged by half of the people in the group in which he is one. This 
is evidenced by the later finding that the largest number of judg- 
ments given to a person is 12 which is one half of the total number of 
24 on the list. 

The individual who is judging may not know well enough all the 
qualities in the individuals judged. This results in a different num- 
ber of people within a group being ranked by the same judge for 
the four qualities. Thus judge X in group Q judges 22 people of his 
group for scholarship. 23 for leadership. 23 for knowledge of Eng- 
lish, and 14 for knowledge of Chinese. 

Thus in all we find there are 656 people ranked in scholarship; 
631 in leadership; 664 in knowledge of English; and 590 in knowl- 
edge of Chinese. This would mean that the Chinese students 
know most about the knowledge of English of their associates and 
least about their knowledge of Chinese. 

Individual Records. In connection with the ranking sheet, a ques- 
tionnaire was sent out for the purpose of gathering individual records 
which would later on lend themselves to the validation of the rank- 
ings. The original sheet is here reproduced. 

Questionnaire 

1 . Name and address _ 

2 . School attending ..Major course 

3. Degrees obtained (where and when) 



4. How many years of English did you have in China? 

5. School in China where you got most of your English 

6. When did you come to the U. S. A.? Month .Year..... 

7. Since coming here, if you have been president, vice-president, secretary. 
general secretary, treasurer, or manager, please fill out the following: 



Chinese Students in America 
Name of Organization Name of Office Held Year to Year 



8. If you have been editor, contributor, or reporter of any magazines, Chinese 
or English, please fill out the following: 

Name of Magazine Name of Position Held Year to Year 



9. If you have written books either in Chinese or in English, please fill out the 
following: 

Title of Book Pages Publishing Co. Date of Publication 



10. If you have been awarded any scholarship, fellowship, assistantship, or 
instructorship, please fill out the following: 

Position School Subject Year to Year 



If you belong to any honorary American fraternities, please fill out the 
following (e. g., Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Xi, etc.): 

Name of For Excellence in 

Fraternity School When Elected What Subject 



12. Mention any other honors which have come to you (e. g., graduated with 
honor, etc.) 

A brief inspection of the questions will show that each one has its 
specific purpose and most of them are related to the four qualities 
in our study. The evaluation of these questions is found in Chap- 
ter VI. 

Test Scores in English. Knowledge of English was the only- 
quality, of which an objective measure could be secured by means of 
tests. Four sets of English tests were given to 42 of the subjects 
from eight different college centres, namely, Harvard, Yale, Colum- 
bia, New York University, University of Pennsylvania, Massachu- 
setts Institute of Technology, Johns Hopkins University, and Uni- 
versity of Maryland. These four sets are (1) Thorndike Alpha 2, 
Part II, (2) Reading Test I 1 , (3) Reading Test II 1 , and (4) Thorndike 

iReading tests I and II are of the type used in parts II and III of the Thorndike Intelligence 
Examination for High School graduates, Series 1919-1923. 



Experimental Material 9 

Vocabulary Test. Alpha 2, Part II , is known to all who are familiar 
with tests. Reading Test I and II are each made of four parts. 
The vocabulary test is made of five parts. In order to show the 
degree of difficulty of the reading and vocabulary tests, a part of 
each is shown below. 

Sample of Reading Test 
Continuous improvements have enabled engineers to reproduce machinery of 
less and less weight for the same power, and at the same time to reduce the spaces 
required for its accommodation, the vibrations due to the working of the engines, 
and the consumption of fuel per horse power. For engines of high power, quadruple 
expansion has sometimes been adopted, scientific methods of balancing have been 
employed, improved qualities of steel and bronze have been introduced, the rate 
of revolution has been increased, and forced lubricating fitted. In the boilers 
higher steam pressures have been used , superheating in some cases being resorted 
to; the rate of combustion has been accelerated by supplying air under pressure 
in the stockhold or in the furnaces, and sometimes by placing fans in the exhaust 
to draw the air and products of combustion more rapidly through the fires; the 
former being known as forced draught and the latter as induced draught. In the 
navy, with the view of saving weight, water-tube boilers have been adopted, but 
boilers of this type have not yet been generally fitted in the mercantile marine. 
Steam pressures now in common use van- from 100 to 180 lb. per sq. in. in cargo 
ships; from 140 to 220 lb. in passenger ships, including the large Atlantic liners; 
from 210 to 300 lb. in large warships where water tube boilers are used; while in 
the destroyers and other classes of warships in which small water-tube boilers are 
used it varies from 180 to 230 lb. per sq. in. 

1 . Of the improvements noted, which do you think is the main cause of the reduc- 
tion in vibration? 

2. What do you think is superheated? 

3. What feature of an ordinary stove would correspond to the exhaust' 

4. Give two words which mean the same as "fitted" as used in line 7. 

5. Name one product of combustion which would not be drawn through the fire 
by an induced draught. 

6. Which of the reductions noted do you attribute most particularly to the 
increased rate of revolution? 

Sample of Yocablxary Test 
A 1 
Write Ha before every word that means something done with hands. 
Write F before every word that means something done with feet. 
Write E before every word that means something done with eyes. 
Write M before every word that means something done with mouth. 
Write T before every word that means a tool. 
Write B before every word that means a part of the body. 
Write S before every word that means a part of the house. 
Write H before every word that means about ships, the sea, and sailing. 



[O 



Chinese Stud en Is in America 



pulverize 


jamb 


regurgitate 


ratchet 


espy 


scourge 


scour 


spinnaker 


clamor 


gape 


slander 


gimlet 


adze 


perambulate 


glower 


laud 


quaver 


polka 


lugger 


gable 


mandrel 


spokeshave 


lathe 


pancreas 


converge 


prate 


newel 


cajole 


alcove 


transcribe 


wainscot 


expostulate 


fibula 


pirouette 


ulna 


roam 


brig 


jettison 


calipers 


larynx 


calumnate 


upbraid 


purses 


wherry 


cochlea 


limn 


dermis 


dhow 


ilium 


swage 





High School Marks in China. High school marks in China were 
secured for 84 of the subjects. These marks, covering four years 
in high school, comprise (1) general averages, (2) marks in English, 
and (3) marks in Chinese. They were used to check up the va- 
lidity of the judgment in the corresponding qualities and for the 
prediction of academic success in America on the basis of that in 
China. The detailed nature of these marks will be described in 
Chapter IY. 

College Marks in America. Since not many students take any 
course in English and certainly none would take any in Chinese in 
America, the college marks in America are confined only to general 
averages as indications of scholarship. Marks of 122 students were 
secured from the Chinese Educational Mission and the Educa- 
tional Bureau of the Chinese Ministry- of Education, Washington, 
D. C. They were marks of different subjects and covered differ- 
ent numbers of years according to individual cases. 



CHAPTER III 

THE JUDGMENT OF ASSOCIATES 

The judgment of associates in respect to a number of human 
traits, to result in high validity and reliability, must needs meet 
several rigorous conditions. First, there must be a thorough 
acquaintance among those who judge one another; second, the 
judgments must be comparable; third, the final judgment of a per- 
son in a particular trait must be the average of as many judgments 
as can be secured; fourth, there must be a common understanding of 
the trait to be judged. In this study, the first condition is well met 
by the unique situation of the Chinese students, in which they culti- 
vate their familiarity to a high degree through meetings, discussions, 
conferences and all kinds of publications both in English and Chi- 
nese. The second condition has to be met by adequate statistical 
treatment as will be explained later. The third and fourth condi- 
tions are both rigorously conformed with. 

I . TRANSMUTATION OF RANKINGS INTO SIGMA POSITIONS 

When the rankings were returned, it was found that they were 
extremely unwieldy and irregular. For instance, in the same qual- 
ity, say scholarship, a person might be ranked as one among 8 
people by one associate, and then as one among n people by 
another. Supposing that he is ranked by both as the third, evi- 
dently the third among 8 people is not as high as the third among 1 1 , 
for there are more cases in the latter. Again, it was also found that, 
on the same sheet ranked by any judge, under scholarship 18 people 
might be ranked; then under leadership 15 people might be ranked; 
under knowledge of English perhaps 19 people; under knowledge 
of Chinese most likely only 14 people. The difficulties with the way 
of obtaining correlations by means of Spearman's formula for rank- 
ing, are apparent. In order to surmount these two difficulties 
pointed out above, it was imperative to transmute these ranking 
values of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., into some other terms so that the third 
among 8 will have a different value from a third among 11 and that 
correlations could be computed not from the data of every sheet by 



12 Chinese Students in America 

Spearman formula but from the data of all sheets on the basis of the 
number of judgments and by the Pearson product-moment formula. 

The method for the transmutation of rankings into sigma posi- 
tions can be found in Thorndike's Mental and Social Measurements, 
pages 116 and 221 ff. For the convenience of this study, which 
involves more than 2,000 such transmutations, a special table was 
made which shows the different comparable values of each number 
according to its place in groups of different sizes. If we look at 
number "1" in Table I, we will see that it has values, 1.10, 1.27, 
1.40, 1.49, 1.59, etc., as it happens to occur in groups of 3, 4, 5,6,7, 
etc. On page 14 is shown the original ranking sheet filled out by the 
judge with figures which, in turn, are transmuted into sigma posi- 
tions according to Table I. The number to the left in each column 
is the original rank. The signed number is the transmuted sigma 
value. The value of this procedure can be seen when we begin to 
add all the rankings of a person in a particular quality in terms of 
the plus and minus sigmas, which, as we have just observed, are of 
comparable values. Thus a person's final score in a quality is the 
algebraic sum of the sigma values divided by the number of judg- 
ments. To illustrate, if A's rankings in scholarship as given by five 
judges are "5" among 10, "5" among 12, "6" among 10, "4" among 

13 and "7" among 11 , then his average score in it in terms of sigma 
positions will be the sum of .13, .32, —.13, .61, — .23 divided by 5, 
or .14. 

All the later correlations of judgments are made of these average 
sigma values thus computed. 



Judgment of Associates 



13 



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Chinese Students in America 



Ranking Sheet 
Read Directions and Definitions very carefully before you proceed. Use pencil. 



NAME 


SCHOLARSHIP 


LEADERSHIP 


KNOWLEDGE 
OF ENGLISH 


KNOWLEDGE OF 
CHINESE 


A 


X 




9 


+ -35 


X 




X 




B 


X 




10 


+ .23 


12 


- .06 


X 




c 


X 




22 


-i-52 


20 


— 1.20 


X 




D 


II 


- 13 


13 


- 13 


14 


- -29 


16 


- .76 


E 


6 


+ -55 


6 


+ .71 


8 


+ .41 


15 


- .60 


F 


I 


+ 2.IO 


4 


+ 1.04 


3 


+ 1.20 


14 


- 45 


G 


X 




16 


- -47 


13 


- .18 


I 


+2.10 


H 


4 


+ -90 


5 


- .86 


9 


+ .29 


2 


+ 145 


1 


16 


- .90 


20 


— 1.04 


21 


-1.48 


II 


- .06 


J 


2 


+ I.4I 


2 


+ 1.52 


1 


+2.21 


8 


+ .32 


K 


3 


+ I.II 


15 


- -35 


15 


- 41 


12 


- .19 


L 


15 


- -71 


14 


- -23 


17 


- .67 


6 


+ .60 


M 


8 


+ -27 


18 


- -7i 


7 


+ -54 


20 


— 2.10 


N 


19 


— 2.10 


21 


-1.23 


19 


— 1. 00 


19 


-145 





io 


O.OO 


7 


+ .58 


10 


+ .18 


9 


+ .19 


P 


18 


-1. 41 


17 


- .58 


18 


- .82 


18 


-I-I5 


Q 


9 


+ .13 


19 


- .86 


16 


- -54 


17 


- -94 


R 


13 


- 41 


11 


+ -13 


5 


+ .82 


3 


+ 1.15 


S 


X 




X 




X 




X 




T 


7 


+ 41 


1 


+2.16 


2 


+ 148 


5 


+ .76 


U 


M 


- -55 


12 


0.00 


6 


+ .67 


10 


+ .06 


V 


17 


— 1. n 


23 


-2.16 


22 


— 2.10 


13 


- -32 


w 


5 


+ -71 


3 


+ 1.23 


4 


+ 1.00 


4 


+ .96 


X 


2 


+I.41 


8 


+ -47 


n 


+ .06 


7 


+ 45 


No. ranked 


19 


23 


22 


20 



Your name. 



Date. 



2. COMPARISON OF THE JUDGMENTS IN ENGLISH WITH TEST SCORES 

IN ENGLISH: THE VALIDITY OF THE JUDGMENTS IN THE 

KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH 

Before any correlations could be made with the average sigma 
values given to each subject in the four qualities, it was first neces- 
sary (1) to compare the rankings or judgments of these four qualities 
with some other independent criteria of the same qualities, and (2) 
to find out how well the judgments of each quality of a certain sub- 



Judgment of Associates 



IS 



ject agree with one another. The former is called the validity of the 
judgment and the latter the reliability. 

We will take knowledge of English for our first consideration. 
As described in the last section the four sets of Thorndike English 
tests were given. The scores in these English tests were then corre- 
lated with the judgments, and the coefficients are shown in Table II . 

TABLE II 

Showing the Intercorrelations between the Judgments in English 
and the Test Scores in English. X=42 









THORNDIKE 


THORNDIKE 




READING I 


READING II 


ALPHA 2, 
II 


VOCABU- 
LARY 


Judgments in 










English 


41 ±.084 


.37 ± -088 


.32 rfc .091 


.61 ±.064 


Reading 1 




■56±.o69 


.58 ±.067 


.49±.oj8 


Reading II 






.63 ±.063 


.21 ±.094 


Thorndike Alpha 










2, II 








•34±.o89 


Thorndike Vocabu- 








lary 











A brief inspection of Table II will at once show that the correla- 
tions between the judgments and different test scores are approxi- 
mately as high as the correlations among test scores themselves. 

The average coefficient of the correlations between the judgments 
and test scores is .43, and that of the correlations among test scores 
themselves is .47. This means that the judgments in the knowledge 
of English are highly valid in so far as they are compared with the 
test scores in English. This would warrant our relying on the judg- 
ments in English so far as their validity is concerned. But since 
the cases here considered are rather few, and since it would be better 
if we could secure other independent criteria to check up the judg- 
ments, high school marks, college marks, and individual records were 
also employed for our purpose, in which more cases were involved, 
as will be described in later chapters. 

As regards the validity of judgments in scholarship, leadership, 
and knowledge of Chinese, since no objective tests were available, 
academic and individual records were secured as criteria. In regard 



16 



Chinese Students in America 



to leadership, it has so far remained such an elusive human trait 
that at present the only good measure of its quantity and quality 
that can still be resorted to is "a consensus of opinion" rendered by 
the largest number of best qualified judges. 

3. THE RELIABILITY OF THE JUDGMENT: SELF-CORRELATION 

The validity of the judgments having been established, the next 
step was to ascertain the reliability, or how well the different judg- 
ments of a particular quality agreed among themselves. It is to be 

TABLE III 

Showing the Reliability Coefficients or Coefficients of Self-correlation 

of 2 with 2 Judgments, 3 with 3, 4 with 4, 5 with 5 

in the Four Qualities 











KNOWLEDGE OF 


KNOWLEDGE OF 




SCHOLARSHIP 


LEADER 
















ENGLISH 


CHINESE 




NO. OF 




NO. OF 




NO. OF 




NO. OF 






CASES 


r 


CASES 


r 


CASES 


r 


CASES 


r 


2 with 2 


















Judgments 


118 


•63 ±.037 


121 


.72 ±.029 


110 


.60 ±.042 


Il8 


• 71 ±-032 


3 with 3 


















Judgments 


77 


•73 ±-037 


79 


.66 ±.044 


83 


.88±.oi7 


76 


.79 ±.029 


4 with 4 


















Judgments 


53 


.84±.027 


44 


.70 ±.044 


52 


.80 ±.034 


27 


.83 ±.041 


5 with 5 


















Judgments 


15 


.85 ±.048 


5 


.82 ±.094 


12 


.92 ±.030 


8 


.85 ±.066 



noted that the number of judgments on a certain quality varies 
widely with different people; it ranges from 3 to 12 judgments. It 
would be extremely laborious, if not impossible, to find out the corre- 
lation of one judgment with every other for more than 600 people 
in four qualities. As statistically justified, it was only necessary to 
split the judgments into halves and correlate them. Thus all the 
judgments on a quality of a subject were massed in a random fashion; 
then the total judgments of 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 in number were split 
into 2 with 2, 3 with 3, 4 with 4, 5 with 5, 6 with 6; these halves 
were added , due regard being given to the plus and minus signs and 
correlations made out of these halves. To illustrate, suppose a cer- 



Judgment of Associates 17 

tain subject receives the following judgments in scholarship: 1.32, 
.23, 1.29, 1.32, 1.26, .68 as they come in random sampling. It is 
only necessary to add the first three and next three and call the pair 
2.84 and 3.26, the same procedure of thus pairing the judgments 
being observed throughout. All the coefficients are contained in 
Table III. 

The significance of these coefficients can not escape our attention. 
We notice two things: first, that the coefficients are substantially- 
high, showing the high reliability of judgments; and second, that 
on the whole, as the number of judgments increases there is a tend- 
ency of corresponding increase in the coefficients, which means a 
corresponding increase in the reliability of judgments. 

From the coefficients in Table III we may estimate the self-corre- 
lations for an estimate from any given number of judges with 
another estimate from that same number of different judges, the 
two groups of judges being drawn at random. The formula to be 
used is the usual Spearman prophecy formula or the formula for 
self-correlation, as shown in the following: 

= p(r 9 ) 
P q + (p-q)r Q 
in which 

gis the number of judgments whose correlation coefficient is known , 
p is any number of judgments whose correlation coefficient is to 
be found out, 

r<i is the correlation coefficient of a judgments with q judgments and 
Yv which is unknown, is the correlation coefficient of p judgments 
with p judgments. 

To illustrate, let us take the facts from Table III. We find there 
that the self-correlation coefficient of 2 with 2 judgments in scholar- 
ship is .63. Based upon this fact what should be the self-correlation 
coefficients when we have 3 with 3 judgments, 4 with 4 judgments, 
5 with 5, 6 with 6 and so on? If we substitute the formula we have 
the following: 

n 2 + (3 -2) .63 72 

We can find out a series of values of r P as p becomes 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 
9, 10, 11, 12, etc., on the basis of q = 2 and r Q = .63. This series of 
values appears in Column II of Table IV A . 



[8 



Chinese Students in America 



TABLE IV 
A 

Theoretical Self-Correlation for Scholarship According to the Number 
of Judgments, Estimated from Empirical r's for 2 with 2 (.63), 

3 WITH 3 (.73), 4 WITH 4 (.84) AND 5 WITH 5 (.85). 



I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII (VI -5-4) 


VIII 


NUMBER 










SUM 


GENERAL 


FITTED 


OF JUDG- 


qi 


g 3 


q< 


2i 


OF 


THEORETI- 


THEORETI- 


MENTS 










q's 


CAL VALUE 


CAL VALUE 


2 


.630 


■643 


.724 


.694 


2.691 


•673 


.668 


3 


.720 


.730 


798 


•773 


3.021 


•755 


•750 


4 


•773 


•783 


.840 


.819 


3-215 


.804 


•799 


5 


.810 


.819 


.868 


.850 


3-347 


.837 


.830 


6 


.836 


•844 


887 


.872 


3-439 


.860 


.856 


/ 


.856 


.864 


.902 


.888 


3-5IO 


.878 


.871 


8 


.872 


.878 


•913 


.901 


3-564 


.891 


.885 


9 


.884 


.890 


.922 


.911 


3.607 


.902 


.898 


10 


•895 


•899 


.929 


.919 


3.642 


.911 


.909 


11 


•903 


.908 


•935 


.926 


3.672 


.918 


•913 


12 


.911 


•9i5 


.940 


•932 


3.698 


•925 


.918 



TABLE IV 
B 

Theoretical Self-Correlation for Leadership Obtained as in 
Table IV A 



I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII (VI *4) 


VIII 


NUMBER 










SUM 


GENERAL 


FITTED 


OF 


qi 


2« 


q* 


qs 


OF 


THEORETI- 


THEORETI- 


Jl DGMENTS 










2's 


CAL VALUE 


CAL VALUE 


2 


•730 


•566 


■538 


.642 


2.480 


.620 


.623 


3 


.808 


.600 


.636 


•732 


2.836 


.709 


.714 


4 


.844 


.721 


.700 


•785 


3050 


•763 


.768 


5 


•877 


.764 


•744 


.820 


3-205 


.801 


.803 


6 


.890 


•795 


.778 


•845 


3-308 


.827 


.828 


7 


.904 


.820 


.803 


.864 


3-391 


.848 


.849 


8 


•915 


.838 


.824 


•879 


3-456 


.864 


.864 


9 


.924 


.858 


.840 


.891 


3-513 


.878 


.876 


10 


•931 


.866 


•854 


.901 


3-552 


.888 


.889 


11 


•937 


•877 


.865 


.909 


3-588 


•897 


.896 


12 


.942 


.886 


•875 


.916 


3.619 


•905 


.9OO 



Judgment of Associates 



TABLE IV 
C 

Theoretical Self- Correlation" for Knowledge of English, 
Obtained as in Table IV A 



I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII (VI -5-4) 


VIII 


NUMBER 










SUM 


GENERAL 


FITTED 


OF 


5= 


<?3 


1* 


g s 


OF 


THEORETI- 


THEORETI- 


JUDGMENTS 










g's 


VAL VALUE 


CAL VALUE 


2 


.600 


.831 


.667 


.821 


2.919 


•730 


.720 


3 


• 6 93 


.880 


•750 


.874 


3-197 


•799 


783 


4 


.750 


.907 


.800 


.902 


3-359 


.840 


•83O 


5 
6 


.790 
.818 


.924 

•936 


•833 
•857 


.920 
•932 


3467 
3-543 


.867 
.886 


•859 
.879 


7 


.840 


•945 


•875 


.942 


3.602 


.901 


•893 


8 


.857 


•951 


.889 


•949 


3.646 


.912 


.901 


9 


.871 


•957 


•899 


•954 


3.681 


.920 


.911 


10 


.882 


.961 


.909 


•958 


3-7io 


.927 


.918 


ii 


.892 


.964 


■917 


.962 


3-735 


•934 


.920 


12 


.899 


.967 


•924 


•965 


3-755 


■939 


■925 



TABLE IV 

D 

Theoretical Self-Correlation for Knowledge of Chinese, 

Obtained as in Table IV A 



I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII (VI -5- 4) 


VIII 


NUMBER 










SUM 


GENERAL 


FITTED 


OF 


qi 


23 


2< 


25 


OF 


THEORETI- 


THEORETI- 


JUDGMENTS 










g's 


CAL VALUE 


CAL VALUE 


2 


.710 


•714 


.709 


.694 


2.827 


.707 


.710 


3 


.786 


.700 


•785 


•773 


3-134 


.784 


.786 


4 


.831 


•834 


.830 


.819 


3-3H 


.829 


.831 


5 


.860 


.862 


•859 


.850 


3-431 


•855 


.860 


6 


.880 


.882 


.879 


.872 


3-513 


.878 


.880 


7 


.896 


.898 


•895 


.888 


3-577 


.894 


.896 


8 


.907 


.909 


.907 


.900 


3-625 


.906 


.907 


9 


.917 


•915 


.916 


.911 


3-659 


•915 


■917 


10 


•925 


.926 


.924 


.919 


3-694 


.924 


•925 


11 


•931 


•932 


•930 


.926 


3-719 


•930 


•931 


12 


•937 


•938 


■936 


•931 


3-742 


•936 


•937 



20 Chinese Students in America 

In a similar manner we find values of r P as p varies on the bases 
of the obtained correlations (when q is 3, r q is .73; when q is 4, 
r q is .84; when g is 5, n is .85) in the case of scholarship. These 
four sets of values are shown in Table WA, in which, for instance 
Column II reads: If the observed coefficient of q 2 is .63, then by 
applying the Spearman prophecy formula the coefficients, r 3 , r 4 , r 5 , 
etc., will be .720, .773, .810, etc., as p becomes 3, 4, 5, etc. 

By using the data of Column I , Table IV^4 as abscissa and the 
data in the Columns II, III, IV, V as ordinates, four curves can be 
plotted, each of which will show the theoretical rise in self-correla- 
tion in the judgment of scholarship. The most probable curve will 
be the one plotted by combining the four altogether and fitting to 
the empirical .63, .73, .84, and .85. 

In Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4, the solid lines show the newly fitted theo- 
retical curves and the dotted lines the observed correlations. The 
values for these newly fitted theoretical curves are called "fitted 
theoretical values," as shown in Column VIII, Table IV. The 
advantage of these fitted theoretical values is that they give the 





$0 
.80 


















.A98 -9-32 


■313. 


.ait 














7 


"""* 






.671 
























3»s 






















.70 

.60 






.7SJ 


^'73 
























2 




.6«& 


'/ 
























t 















































riTTCD THEORETICAL SELr CORRELATION 




z 

1- 














OBSERVED SELF CORRELATION VALUES TOR 

JUDGMENTS IN SCHOLARSHIP 




K 


.an 






























" 




































































.10 




































































- 








> ( 


■ 




. 


1 


1 


1 


z 1 


J 1* 



NUHBEF OF JUDGES CORRELATED WITH AN EQUAL NUMBER OF JUDGES 



Fig. i. Curves Showing the Fitted Theoretical and Observed Self-correlation 
Values for Judgments in Scholarship. 



Judgment of Associates 2\ 

coefficients from judgments of 2 in each half to 12 in each half, thus 
aiding us greatly in computing correlations corrected for attenuation . 

The data in Table IV and in Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4 show that the 
obtained values in Chinese agree best with the "fitted theoretical 
values" in it. while the obtained values in other three qualities do 
not agree so well with their corresponding fitted theoretical values. 
This would mean that the judgments agree best on the knowledge 
of Chinese, the reason being most probably that Chinese, the 
mother tongue, stands out as a prominent quality, in respect to 
which Chinese students come to know one another most readily and 
a competent judgment of which can be rendered in a most valid and 
reliable way. 

It may be contended that, as stated previously, there was in 
total a less number of judgments in knowledge of Chinese, showing 
that the quality was not so widely known to judges as others; but 
this does not change the fact that the judges were better able to rate 
knowledge of Chinese, so that when the quality is judged, it is 
judged in a more thorough manner. The obtained values in scholar- 



5 -30 

























.300 
















•*; 




""Si* 


1ms 


.864 


.876 


.683 


*5k 










.73 


L~ 




-»03 






















.623 


/ T-* 6 


































































VALUES FOR IUDQMENT5 IN LEADERSHIP 

— — —— OBSERVED SELF CORRELATION VALUES FOR 
JUDGMENTS IN LEADERSHIP. 































































































































NUMBE 


\ 0FJ\ 


1 

OGES 


5 
CORRCL 


> 

ATCO W 


1 

TH AN 


EQUAL 


» 
NUHBEf 


1 

t OF Tl. 


OGCS 


^ 1 


3 1 


* 



Fig. 2. Curves Showing the Fitted Theoretical and Observed Self-correlation 
Values for Judgments in Leadership. 



22 Chinese Students in America 

ship stand second in conformity with the fitted theoretical values 
therein. This would seem to indicate that scholarship, as easily 
evidenced by school marks, degrees, and rewards, with which the 
students are fully acquainted, does not seem to be vague to them. 
The obtained and fitted theoretical values in English stand third 
in agreement. We are inclined to believe that they should agree 
even better, inasmuch as English is a daily spoken language for 
these students. It is to be noted, however, that the correlation 
coefficient of 5 with 5 judgments in the knowledge of English runs 
as high as .92; it is a clear indication that when there are 10 judg- 
ments in the knowledge of English the number is highly sufficient. 
The obtained and fitted theoretical values in leadership agree 
poorest, which, however, was not unexpected. We are all aware 
of the vagueness of the meaning of leadership and the lack of stand- 
ards to judge by. Still, however, there is a tendency of the obtained 
values to rise as the number of judgments increases. 

Taken as a whole, the reliability of judgments on these four quali- 
ties, as described above, has led to two conclusions: first, the relia- 













M 






■ 911. 


Sl» 


,»20 


S25 










.86; 


SjBJ 


/. 




T5T.S 


















.710 


J, 


rfw % ' 


.Bo 
























I 
































































VALUES TOR JUDGMENTS IN KNOWLEDGE 
OF ENGLISH . 
----- OBSERVED 6ELF CORRELATION VALUES FOB 
JUDGMENTS IN KNOWLEOQC OF ENGLISH. 

























































































































' 


^ 


5 




1 


> 


> 1 





1 


2. 1 


S 14 



NUMBER OF JUDGES CORRELATED WITH AN EOuAL NUMBER OF JUDGES 



Fig. 3. Curves Showing the Fitted Theoretical and Observed Self-correlation 
Value for Judgments in Knowledge of English. 



Judgment of Associates 



23 



bility is very high, and second, on the average, it has accorded with 
our general statistical principle that the increase in judgments is 
accompanied by a corresponding increase in correlation coefficients. 
That is, the judgments are both sufficiently valid and reliable to 
justify our reliance upon them. 

The validity and reliability having both been established, the 
next step is to compute the raw correlations among these four 
qualities. 

4. RAW CORRELATIONS 

When we come to compute the raw correlations among these four 
qualities we are confronted with the fact that the judgments given 
to different people in each quality vary as much as from 3 to 12. 
An average of 3 judgments naturally cannot have as high a relia- 
bility as that of 5 judgments; and that of 7 judgments likewise 
cannot be compared with that of 9, etc. It would be statistically 
erroneous to include under one study judgments by varying num- 
bers of judges. It was found proper, consequently, to divide the 



2 

o 























331 


m 








| _J2I. J ' ; - " 








.631^ 




"So 


" 










7 


.ft6 
































— 












VALUES rOR. TU051ENT4 IN KNOWLEDGE Or 
CHINESE . 

— — OBSERVED SELT CORRELATION VALUES FOR 

JUDGMENTS IN KNOWLEDSE OF CHINESE 












1 


__| 
































. 

















































».-;i= ;•".-. :3£« c:rielate.o with an hual number 



Fig. 4. Curves Showing the Fitted Theoretical and Observed Self-correlation 
Values for Judgments in Knowledge of Chinese. 



24 



Chinese Students in America 



subjects, for purposes of correlation, into four large groups in each 
of the four qualities. They are (i) those judged by either 3 or 4 
judges; (2) those judged by either 5 or 6 judges; (3) those judged by 
either 7 or 8 judges; and (4) those judged by 9, 10, 11 or 12 judges. 
All correlations were computed by Pearson's product-moment 
method. The coefficients are presented in Table V. 

TABLE V 

Showing the Raw Intercorrelations of Scholarship, Leadership, 

Knowledge of English and Knowledge of Chinese 



CORRELATION 


3 or 4 

judgments 


5 OR 6 

JUDGMENTS 


7 OR 8 

JUDGMENTS 


9, 10, II OR 12 

JUDGMENTS 


OF 


NO. OF 

CASES 


' 


NO. OF 

CASES 


" 


NO. OF 
CASES 


r 


NO. OF 
CASES 


r 


Scholarship with 
Leadership 


232 


•578±.030 


1 85 


• S36±.036 


130 


■ 331 ±.053 


62 


.416^.072 


Scholarship with 
Knowledge of 


260 


• 533±.03i 


180 


.609 ±.032 


129 


.5o6±.044 


59 








Scholarship with 
Knowledge of 


212 


•334±-043 


180 


• 453±.o?9 


128 


.307 ±.054 


58 








Leadership with 
Knowledge of 


242 


.525 ±.041 


197 


.583 ±.033 


129 


• 526±.043 


48 








Leadership with 
Knowledge of 
Chinese 


178 


.22Q±.049 


198 


.347 ±.043 


120 


.i50±.o6o 


51 


.311 ±. 085 


Knowledge of Eng- 
lish with Knowl- 
edge of Chinese.. 


177 


.027±.05i 


200 


.oi4±.048 


134 


.078±.059 


63 


.on±.o8s 



A discussion of the significance of these coefficients, as shown in 
Table V, will be presented in Section 7 of this chapter. 



5. CORRELATIONS CORRECTED FOR ATTENUATION 

All correlation coefficients in Table V, it should be noticed, are 
subject to errors due to paucity of measures. What we are con- 
cerned with in this study is what would be the true correlations 
among these four qualities, were it possible to secure all the possible 
competent judgments in each quality. In practice, such correla- 



Judgment of Associates 25 

tions cannot be secured. Mathematically, however, we can com- 
pute such true relationships between these qualities by means of 
Spearman's formula for the correction of the correlation coefficients: 



rn, = ■ — ' __ — 



Another form of this formula is: 



rxy- 



fl/il/i 



Xi and x-2 are the two independent series of measures of quality A; 
yi and y 2 are the two independent series of measures of quality B. 
To illustrate the application of this formula to our problem, it is 
necessary to refer to Tables IV and V. Let us work out, for example, 
the true correlation between scholarship and leadership of those sub- 
jects uniformly judged by 3 or 4 judges. Then r%^ will be .775, the 
average of .750 and .799, as contained in Column VIII, Table IV<4 
the fitted theoretical values for 3 and 4 judgments in scholarship; 
r Vl v, will be .741, the average of .714 and .768, as shown in Column 
VIII, Table IV B, the fitted theoretical values for 3 and 4 judgments 
in leadership. 

In this particular case, the values rz^, and r*^ were not obtained 
since they are by the nature of the case approximately the same and 
equal to the raw correlation r*». We therefore write 



Vr^. rx 01 = V(-578) 2 = -578 

By substituting these values, the Spearman formula for the cor- 
rection of correlation coefficients is greatly simplified, 

^ = (77 .f 8 7dl)i =.764 
w7oX74ij 

which is the correlation corrected for attenuation between scholar- 
ship and leadership in the case of those judged by either 3 or 4 
judges. The rest of the correlations are likewise corrected, as shown 
in Table VI . 



26 Chinese Students in America 

TABLE VI 

Showing the Correlations Corrected for Attenuation between 

Scholarship, Leadership, Knowledge of English, and 

Knowledge of Chinese 





3 or 4 


5 OR 6 


7 OR 8 


9, 10, II OR 12 




judgments 


JUDGMENTS 


JUDGMENTS 


JUDGMENTS 


correlation of 












r 


r 


r 


r 


Scholarship with Leader- 












.764 


.648 


.382 


.464 


Scholarship with Knowl- 




edge of English 


.684 


•713 


.572 


.762 


Scholarship with Knowl- 










edge of Chinese 


•423 


•530 


.338 


•151 


Leadership with Knowl- 










edge of English 


.679 


•693 


.600 


.781 


Leadership with Knowl- 










edge of Chinese 


.296 


•413 


.171 


•343 


Knowledge of English 










with Knowledge of Chi- 












- 033 


.016 


-.087 


.012 







A brief inspection of these corrected correlations as compared 
with the observed correlations (Table V), shows that on the whole 
the values of the former are only slightly higher than those of the 
latter, which would indicate that the obtained measures attain a 
high degree of approximity to the true measures. 



6. FINAL COMPOSITE CORRELATIONS 

All the correlation coefficients in Table VI , though they have been 
corrected for attenuation, represent various values of single true 
correlations, due to the difference in measures. It is desirable to 
give one single expression of the correlation in each case. This 
single expression — the final composite correlation — we compute 
as the average of the four separate correlations of Table VI each as 
the square root of the number of cases. 

The final composite correlations thus obtained are shown in 
Table VII. 



Judgment of Associates 



27 



TABLE VII 
Showing the Final Composite Correlations between Scholarship, Lead- 
ership, Knowledge of English, and Knowledge of Chinese. 



correlation of 


NO. of cases 


r 




609 

628 
578 
616 
547 
574 


.592 ±.050 
.7i9± -027 
.389 ±.047 
.679 ±.022 
.309 ±.030 
— .024±.oi4 


Scholarship with Knowledge of English 

Scholarship with Knowledge of Chinese 




Knowledge of English with Knowledge of Chinese. . 



The deviation of each correlation coefficient in Table VI from the 
corresponding final composite correlation in Table VII was obtained. 
The sigma of these deviations was computed. The probable error is 
therefore this sigma divided by Vn (in this case 4) and multi- 
plied by .6745. Thus, for the correlation between scholarship and 
leadership, the calculation is as shown in the accompanying table: 



Corrected 


Deviations of 




Correlation 


Column (i) from 


d? 


Coefficients 


•592 


of Table VII 




.764 




+ .172 


.029584 


.648 




+ .056 


.003136 


.382 




— .210 


.044100 


.464 




-.128 


.016384 



Sum d 2 = .093204 



.093204 



t» t- r cr dis , .15 
P. E. = .6745— =- =.674 -^=.050 
V n 2 



7. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS 

The correlation coefficients, as shown in Table VII , are significant 
and certain interpretations of them w r ith respect to each one may be 
made here. 

a. The correlation betw r een scholarship and leadership is rather 
high (r= .592 ±.05). This high correlation coefficient clearly indi- 



28 Chinese Students in America 

cates that academic work has a significant bearing upon non-aca- 
demic work. But it has an even more significant meaning: 
it indicates that the non-academic work of Chinese students in 
America is of a highly academic type instead of a social, recrea- 
tional , and athletic type, as is the case with American students. The 
non-academic activities in which Chinese students in America 
generally participate and develop their capacities for leadership 
include, almost exclusively, academic discussions, speeches, debates, 
writings, etc., to which scholarship evidently contributes a large 
part. On the other hand, non-academic activities such as athletics, 
social affairs in various forms, in which leadership would require 
qualities different from those essential to scholarship, are rarely 
participated in by Chinese students in America. 

The writer is not aware of any experiment that has been conducted 
to show the relationship between scholarship and school leader- 
ship. Studies have been made between scholarship and leadership 
after the individuals have graduated from college through Phi Beta 
Kappa and Who's Who records; they, however, are somewhat dif- 
ferent from our study in that the leadership element considered 
in them is of the after-school period. 

Another significant fact that this rather high correlation brings 
out is a confirmation of the traditional practice in China of predict- 
ing non-academic leadership almost exclusively upon the basis of 
academic attainment. For centuries past, the selection of adminis- 
trative officers in China had been purely determined by accomplish- 
ments along academic lines. The old examination system was 
typical. In the Western countries, leadership in all walks of life is 
recognized irrespective of academic attainment though the latter 
has its important part to play. In China, or in the minds of the 
Chinese, it is hardly conceivable except in rare cases that recognition 
be given to non-academic leadership without first ascertaining the 
academic background . Just as the Greeks believed that the philoso- 
phers should rule, so do the Chinese hold that the intellectuals or 
literati should lead. It is within the limit of reason to expect that 
if a scientific determination is to be made in China among Chinese 
students there to find out the relationship between scholarship and 
leadership, the correlation coefficient will be still higher than .592. 

b. The correlation between scholarship and knowledge of English 
is high = .719ZL.027) and the correlation between scholarship and 



Judgment of Associates 29 

knowledge of Chinese is low (r = .389 ±.047), the former being the 
highest of all the correlations obtained. These two correlation 
coefficients tend to settle the long-standing dispute between two 
theories: one maintains that knowledge of Chinese which carries 
with it knowledge of Chinese history, Chinese philosophy, Chinese 
attitudes, interests, habits, forms a valuable asset in the acquisition 
of Western knowledge, and that knowledge of English is not essen- 
tial; the other maintains just the opposite, that is, knowledge of 
English is essential. These two correlations found in this study are 
undoubtedly in support of the second theory. Their significance lies 
in the fact that while knowledge of English is more causal to the 
degree of scholarship, knowledge of Chinese is not a good measure of 
the scholarship of a Chinese student in America, since in all 
probability the correlation found (.389) is due in large part to 
the influence of intelligence, which is undoubtedly highly correlated 
with both scholarship and knowledge of Chinese. Thus, if it were 
possible to "partial out" the influence of intelligence, the correlation 
between scholarship in America and knowledge of Chinese would be 
much nearer zero. The explanation for the existence of the high 
correlation between scholarship and knowledge of English is simple. 
Scholastic attainment in America presupposes, other things being 
equal, an efficient instrument to work with and a good method to 
work by. The former consists of a knowledge of English as a lan- 
guage and the latter consists of proper attitude, interests, habits, 
and ideals acquired through a knowledge of English. The extent 
to which a Chinese student acquires this method and instrument 
conditions the extent to which he will succeed in understanding, 
appreciating, and mastering readings and lectures in English and in 
approaching and solving problems that are Western in nature. It is 
to be noted that while these two correlations obtain among Chinese 
students in America they may not hold true among Chinese students 
in China. While no scientific determination has been made, it is 
very likely that among students in China knowledge of Chinese is 
more closely associated with scholarship than knowledge of English. 
c. The correlation between leadership and knowledge of English 
is high (r= .679±.022) and the correlation between leadership and 
knowledge of Chinese is low (r= .309± .030) . The situation here is 
somewhat similar to that described in the preceding paragraph. 
Other things being equal, leadership in America demands an instru- 



30 Chinese Students in America 

ment and a method, or a language and an attitude. The language is, 
of course, English which Chinese students in America generally 
speak, and the attitude implies all those modes of behaviour, con- 
duct, and bearing that are Western. This statement is evidenced by 
the use of English in most, if not all, of the discussions, writings and 
speeches among Chinese students here and by the adoption of ways 
of appealing, convincing, and influencing people, which the students 
have to acquire anew in this country. 

A correlation of .309 between leadership and knowledge of Chinese 
shows that if intelligence, which is decidedly correlated highly with 
both leadership and knowledge of Chinese, is "partialed out," 
knowledge of Chinese will be correlated extremely low with leader- 
ship in America. On the other hand, if a scientific determination is 
to be made among Chinese students in China on the relationship of 
leadership with knowledge of English and with knowledge of 
Chinese, the coefficients may be just the reverse; that is, leadership 
is correlated very low with knowledge of English and rather high 
with knowledge of Chinese. This statement, however, still awaits 
further verification. 

d. The correlation between knowledge of English and knowledge 
of Chinese is virtually zero (r = — .024=^.014). The existence of 
this slightly negative or substantially zero correlation raises two 
fundamental questions in respect to the teaching of English and of 
Chinese: First, is there any fundamental difference between the 
English language and the Chinese language? Second, is there any 
great divergence of emphasis upon and time in teaching these two 
languages? 

In the attempt to answer the first question, it may be said on the 
positive side that English and Chinese are two totally different 
languages. In writing, English goes horizontally from left to right, 
while Chinese goes vertically from right to left. English is pho- 
netic, while Chinese is ideographic. English grammar has been quite 
fully developed; Chinese grammar has not had concise formation 
and has not been taught as such. In English, the written and spoken 
languages are almost, if not perfectly, identical; in Chinese the 
gulf between the two has been as wide as that between the language 
of Paradise Lost and modern American journalistic language. 
The English words are mostly polysyllabic, but without exception the 
Chinese characters are monosyllabic. By virtue of these differences, 



Judgment of Associates 31 

it may be inferred that neither identity of procedure nor identity 
of elements would or could exist in the process of learning these two 
languages. Thus the lack of transfer tends to reduce the correla- 
tion between these two languages to zero. 

The second interpretation of the lack of correlation between 
English and Chinese is found in the existing fact that the emphasis 
upon and the time in teaching these two languages in different 
schools in China have been so varied. Essentially, there are three 
types of schools in China which, for the sake of argument, let us call 
types "A," "B," and "C." A short description as to how English 
and Chinese are taught in these schools may be of service here. In 
type "A" school, the students commence to learn Chinese very 
early in their school life and master it thoroughly. It is not until 
very late, just prior to their coming to America, that they begin to 
learn English. The preponderance of emphasis upon and time 
devoted to the study of Chinese produces the type of Chinese stu- 
dents in America that generally excels in the knowledge of Chinese 
and is handicapped in the knowledge of English. To type "A" 
belong the old-fashioned Chinese schools, most of which are gov- 
ernment schools. In type "B" school, students generally have 
acquired a good knowledge of Chinese, but they also begin to learn 
English fairly early with due emphasis upon it. As a result, these 
students possibly possess a corresponding attainment in their knowl- 
edge of English and of Chinese. To type "B" belong most of the 
modern schools in China, both government and private. In type 
"C" school, knowledge of English stands out as a paramount feature 
in the curriculum, overshadowing and crowding out the rest of 
school studies, among which is included the study of Chinese. 
The product of this type of school is a group of students well versed 
in English, especially in spoken English, but poorly prepared in the 
knowledge of Chinese. To type "C" belong most of the missionary 
schools in China. Now, if we make a study of the correlation be- 
tween Chinese and English among students from the type "A" 
schools, it will be highly negative; the same relationship will exist 
among students from the type "C" schools. But if the correlation 
between English and Chinese is to be worked out among students 
from the type "B" schools, it will in all probability be highly posi- 
tive. The question now is how the students from the three types of 
schools are distributed in America. It is recalled that question 5 



32 Chinese Students in America 

in the questionnaire (page 7) attempts to find out the school in 
China where each student acquired most of his knowledge of Eng- 
lish, which will also indirectly indicate the particular type of student 
he is. A distribution of these three types of students in America 
according to the types of schools they come from in China is made 
as shown below: 

1. Students from type "A" schools in China — 20 per cent 

2. Students from type "B" schools in China — 52 per cent 

3. Students from type "C" schools in China — 28 per cent 

The number of Chinese students who were born and brought up 
in America are so few that they are negligible for our purpose. Now, 
if we add the students from schools of types "A" and "C," they 
comprise 48 per cent of the total number of students included in this 
study or practically one half; the students from schools of type "B" 
are roughly another half of the total. The correlation between 
English and Chinese among "A" and "C" students will be negative 
while that among "B" students will be positive. A correlation of 
something around zero is therefore highly probable when these three 
types of students are assembled in one study. 

These two interpretations evidently represent two theories: one 
attributing the zero correlation between knowledge of English and 
knowledge of Chinese to the intrinsic and fundamental differences 
between these two languages; the other to external and artificial 
causes. If the former is true, then the correlation, as it exists 
now, will persist permanently so long as English and Chinese 
remain fundamentally different. If the latter is true, the zero 
correlation can be increased from a low positive value to a high 
positive value in proportion as human effort is brought to change 
the environmental influences. The writer is inclined to believe 
that the latter interpretation is more likely to be true, though the 
former is not to be ignored. The correlation probably can be 
raised considerably higher on the positive side, but it is unlikely 
that it could be raised as high as that between, say, English and 
French or even between Russian and Spanish. 

e. One of the interesting points of this general problem is the 
correlation of leadership in student days in America with leader- 
ship in future years in China. This particular phase of the 
problem cannot be solved now, for the records of the older gen- 



Judgment of Associates 33 

erations of Chinese students in America both for the student 
period and for the period after their return to China are incom- 
plete. The writer hopes, however, to take up this question by 
preserving the records of the six hundred and sixty-four subjects 
of this study and by following their careers upon their return to 
China. In the meantime, it may be said that in all probability 
the dependence of leadership upon general intelligence will make 
this correlation high and that the dependence of leadership upon 
the formation of habitual responses to enviromental factors will 
will tend to make the correlation low. The latter part of the 
statement will become clearer when it is remembered that the 
American environment is at many points different from the Chinese 
environment, and that consequently responses which are effective 
in either one of the two environments may be ineffective or even 
handicapping in the other. 



CHAPTER IV 

COMPARISON OF THE JUDGMENTS WITH 
HIGH SCHOOL MARKS 

In Chapter III we showed the validity of the judgments of asso- 
ciates in English by comparing them with test scores in English. 
The purpose of this and the following chapters is to prove the valid- 
ity of the judgments of associates in the other three qualities, 
namely: scholarship, leadership, and knowledge of Chinese. 

The validity of the judgments in the qualities of scholarship, 
knowledge of English and knowledge of Chinese will be proved by 
comparing them with the high school marks from China of 78 of 
the subjects who studied in the same school. The students from 
this school are fairly representative of the Chinese students in 
America. These marks cover a period of four years in the high 
school, comprising the following: (1) general average in High School 
I, II, III, IV; (2) marks in English in High School I, II, III, IV; 
and (3) marks in Chinese in High School I, II, III, IV. The average 
mark of any student in any subject, say, English, is the average of 
the marks of English for four years and this average is taken as an 
index of the knowledge of English of that student. The following 
tables show the averages, standard deviations, and corrections for 
(A) general average, (B) English, and (C) Chinese. 

A brief inspection of the foregoing tables will show that in each 
case the averages are approximately the same; so are the standard 
deviations. The correction in each case is computed by comparing 
the average of each year with the general average of the four years 
and finding the deviations therefrom with either a plus or minus 
sign, as the case may be. In order to make the work less laborious 
and much simpler, these corrections can be used for computing the 
final average in each subject for each person. Thus, if A has in four 
years in the high school the following marks in English: 88.5, 86.3, 
80, 79-5, then these values, when corrected according to the cor- 
rections in Table VI I IB, will become 88.5, 70, 84.3, 83, 80.5, which 
are averaged again to be 85 as a single index of A's mark in English 
in the four years in the high school. 



Comparison with High School Marks 



35 



TABLE VIII 

Showing the Averages, Standard Deviations, and Corrections of High 

School Marks for Four Years in (A) General Average, 

(B) English, and (C) Chinese 

A 

general average 





H. S. I 


H. S. II 


H. S. Ill 


H. S. IV 


No. of Cases. . . 


130 


146 


109 


102 


Average 


81.83 


83-53 


79.48 


82.68 


Standard 










Deviation . . . 


4-4 


4-5 


5-1 


4-3 


Correction 





— 2 


+2 


— 1 






B 










ENGLISH 








H. S. I 


H. S. II 


H. S. Ill 


H. S. IV 


No. of Cases. . . 


131 


189 


154 


149 


Average 


80.85 


82.74 


77.88 


79-85 


Standard 










Deviation . . . 


5-1 


6.2 


6.2 


5-0 


Correction 





— 2 


+3 


+ 1 






C 










CHINESE 








H. S. I 


H. S. II 


H. S. Ill 


H. S. IV 


No. of Cases. . . 


119 


179 


172 


137 


Average 


8046 


81.4I 


82.01 


78.45 


Standard 










Deviation . . . 


7-4 


7-1 


7.2 


7-i 


Correction 


+ 1 


O 


— 1 


+3 



The marks for the general average and for Chinese are computed 
in a similar manner. 

It must be noted here that in comparing the high school marks 
with the judgment, in order to find out the validity of the latter, 
the general average mark in the high school is taken to be indicative 



36 



Chinese Students in America 



of scholarship, the mark in English to be indicative of knowledge 
of English, and the mark in Chinese to be indicative of knowledge 
of Chinese. The correlations thus computed are shown in Table IX. 

TABLE IX 

Showing the Correlation Between the High School Marks and the 

Judgment of Associates in Scholarship, Knowledge of 

English, and Knowledge of Chinese 



CORRELATION OF 


NO. OF CASES 


r 


H. S. General Averages with the Judgment in 
Scholarship 

H. S. Marks in English with the Judgment in 
Knowledge of English 

H. S. Marks in Chinese with the Judgment in 
Knowledge of Chinese 


68 
76 
68 


.42 1 ±.068 
.307 ±.070 
•374±-07i 



The coefficient of .307 in Table IX shows that the judgment in 
English does not correlate so highly with high school marks in Eng- 
lish as it does with test scores in English, for, if we refer back to 
Table I, the average correlation coefficient of the judgment with 
the four English test scores is .43. But still the difference is not so 
great as to make us doubt the validity of the judgment as com- 
pared with high school marks. 

The three correlation coefficients of .421, .307, and .374 are 
enough to warrant us to rely upon the judgment in scholarship and 
knowledge of Chinese. 

By using the high school marks, inter-correlations between the 
general averages, marks in English, and marks in Chinese were also 
computed, as shown in Table X. 

TABLE X 

Showing the Correlations Between the High School General Averages, 

Marks in English and Marks in Chinese 



CORRELATION OF 


NO. OF cases 


r 


H. S. General Averages with Marks in English . . . 
H. S. General Averages with Marks in Chinese. . . . 
H. S. Marks in English with Marks in Chinese. . . . 


84 
72 
77 


.683 ±.039 
.I90±.077 
.I9i=h.074 



Comparison with High School Marks 37 

The rather high correlation coefficient of .683 between general 
averages and marks in English as compared with that of .719 as 
secured on the basis of the judgment is interesting. It shows very 
conclusively that the judgment of associates and high school marks 
agree very well in their estimation of scholarship and knowledge of 
English. And this agreement adds, of course, more weight to the 
validity of the judgment. 

The low correlation coefficient (r== .190) between general averages 
and marks in Chinese gives weight to the fact that Chinese has a 
very small part to play in the estimation of scholarship, or better 
still, in determining the general averages in that particular high 
school. And such is the actual case. For, to the knowledge of the 
writer, in that high school, the department of Chinese is a separate 
and distinct unit which has nothing to do with the Western depart- 
ment, so called, which includes all modern subjects, taught in Eng- 
lish. 



CHAPTER V 

COMPARISON OF THE JUDGMENTS WITH COLLEGE 
MARKS 

I. THE JUDGMENTS IN SCHOLARSHIP AND GENERAL 
AVERAGES IN COLLEGES 

If it is desirable to compare the judgment of associates with high 
school marks in China, it will be still more desirable to compare it 
with college marks in America. This was done in a crude way, for 
any fine statistical manipulation did not seem possible, though 
profitable, due to the erratic nature of the material in hand . College 
marks of 122 of the students in our study were secured. Since some 
had more marks and others less, due to the difference of the number 
of years which had been spent here arid to other causes, such as that 
some colleges made reports of marks while others did not, it was 
decided to include only those students who had a total of at least 
7 marks in different subjects. The method for weighting these 
marks from different colleges was a simple one. Either by corre- 
spondence or by studying the catalogues, the different marking sys- 
tems of more than 50 colleges were collected and compared. It was 
found that, numerous as they were, these systems did not differ 
very much. Inasmuch as many systems preferred letters or abbre- 
viations to designate marks such as "A" standing for "excellent" 
which is equal to "90-100" and "B" for "very good" which is equal 
to "80-90," it was imperative, for the purpose of transmutation of 
capital letters into numbers, to devise a definite method by means 
of which to transmute. This was done by taking the mid-value of 
a range of values that was given to a certain designation. To illus- 
trate: the marking system of a certain college is somewhat like the 
following: H.H.C. =95-100; H.C. = 90-94; C. = 85-89; etc. If 
we want to assign numerical values to H.H.C, H.C, and C, etc., 
we simply take the mid-values of their corresponding numbers, 
which are 97, 92, 87, etc. Thus, if a student receives a mark of 
H.H.C. in a certain subject, the most convenient way to express it 
numerically is to call it 97, which would probably be the average of 
all the H.H.C. marks received. 



Comparison with College Marks 39 

After all the transmutations were made, the marks of every stu- 
dent were averaged as an index of his scholarship. The average 
of these 122 marks was found to be 81.2 with a standard deviation 
of 7.1. These two values, however, are not as significant as they 
might appear to be, since they were computed from marks from 
different systems. 

The correlation of college marks with judgments in scholarship 
was worked out and the coefficient was 4I4± .052. This coefficient 
warrants us again to trust the judgment in scholarship as reasonably 
valid . 

2. HIGH SCHOOL GENERAL AVERAGES COMPARED WITH COLLEGE 
GENERAL AVERAGES 

Another correlation that is of interest and might be mentioned 
here is that between high school averages and college averages. 
The correlation coefficient was found to be 41 2 ±.074. This must 
be taken to mean the correlation between the entire high school 
work in China and the entire college work in America. Here again 
the coefficient is not as significant as it might be, due to the difference 
in the marking systems. Still it indicates how accomplishment in 
high school in China will predict accomplishment in college work in 
America, and to that extent it is significant and of practical use. 



CHAPTER VI 

COMPARISON OF THE JUDGMENTS WITH INDIVIDUAL 
RECORDS 

I. A SCALE FOR JUDGING THE ACTIVITIES OF CHINESE 
STUDENTS IN AMERICA 

When the ranking sheets were sent out, it is to be noted that the 
judges were not asked to rank themselves among those whom they 
ranked, the reasons being that, first, the extreme modesty which is 
characteristic of Chinese might result in ranking oneself too low, 
thus rendering the rankings inaccurate and, second, the embarrass- 
ment put to the judge might even hinder his otherwise willing coop- 
eration in this work. Consequently, a questionnaire was sent with 
the ranking sheet to each one, asking him or her to fill it out for 
himself or herself as the case may be, concerning the four qualities 
in our study. This questionnaire is shown on page 7. The facts 
stated in these questionnaire sheets, however, were found to be so 
unwieldy as to make a direct statistical treatment of them seem 
impossible. To evaluate these facts by a number of judges without 
at first some objective criteria to fall back upon would be to expose 
oneself to gross error. Consequently, a method was devised 
whereby all the facts were classified under four headings: scholar- 
ship, leadership, knowledge of English, and knowledge of Chinese. 
Then the procedure was greatly simplified by evaluating each posi- 
tion or achievement once and for all by twelve judges. This saved 
the judges the trouble of going over all the original papers, which 
would mean a tremendous amount of time and labor. To illustrate: 
If ten students happened to have Phi Beta Kappa keys from ten 
different colleges, it was only necessary to take this particular fra- 
ternity key as an evidence of scholarship common to all, and ask 
the judge to give a numerical value to it. It might be contended 
that Phi Beta Kappa keys from different colleges might carry differ- 
ent values and they again might differ with different individuals. 
True, but for our purpose it was not essential; in fact, not desirable 
to make too fine a distinction. It was sufficient to mark off a man 



Comparison -with Individual Records 



41 



with such an honor key from one who had a different one or from 
one who did not have any. 

This being the general principle, all those common activities in 
terms of positions held, degrees gained, articles written, or other 
works accomplished, with the exception of a few activities peculiar 
to certain individuals, were listed under the four headings to which 
they belonged and submitted to twelve judges who were asked to 
give them numerical values. The judgments were made on a scale 
of 10, i. e., the judgments varied from o to 10. "o" is assigned to 
those activities that deserve no credit; "1" to those that deserve 
the least amount of credit; "10" to those that deserve the highest 
amount of credit. The rest of credits, 2, 3, 4, etc., are assigned to 
positions that fall in between. The reason for selecting just twelve 
judges instead of more or less is that given in Chapter III, where it 
was pointed out that this seems to be the optimum number because 
of its high self-correlation coefficient. These twelve judges were 
fully acquainted with the activities of Chinese students in America, 
mature in scholarship, and sound in judgment. Thus each activity 
received twelve values or judgments. These judgments were split 
into halves and correlations were computed to show their reliability, 
as shown in Table XI . 



TABLE XI 
Showing the Reliability of 12 Judgments on Individual Records 



CORRELATION OF 


NO. OF CASES 


r 




17 
78 
40 
42 


.636 ±.096 

.855 ±.020 
.892 ±.023 
.865 ±.026 


6 with 6 Judgments in Leadership 

6 with 6 Judgments in Knowledge of English 

6 with 6 Judgments in Knowledge of Chinese 



These high self-correlation coefficients warrant us to make use 
of the judgments of these twelve judges for the treatment of indi- 
vidual records. The next step is to give a single score to each activ- 
ity by averaging the twelve judgments. 

With the omission of a few individual activities which partake of 
personal character, the scale thus made out is produced in Table 
XII. These omitted activities were such as to reveal the identity 
of the individuals holding the positions involved. 



.2 Chinese Students in America 

TABLE XII 
A Scale for Judging the Activities of Chinese Students in America 

Leadership 



Position 

President 
Vice President 
Secretary 
Treasurer 
Councilman 
Representative 
Auditor 
Election Officer 



Organization 
Chinese Students' Alliance in America 



Points 

9.2 

57 
6.8 

6-3 
5-8 
4.8 
44 
44 



Chairman 
Vice Chairman 
Secreta ry 
Treasurer 



Section of Chinese Students' Alliance in America 



8.0 
50 
5-8 
54 



President 

Vice President 

Secretary 

Treasurer 

Manager 

Auditor 

Committeeman 



Local Chinese Students' Club in America 



6.7 
4-3 

4.8 

4-5 
4-3 
3-1 
3-8 



General Manager Chinese Students' Monthly 
Advertising Manager " " " 

Circulation Manager " " 

Associate Manager " " " 



7-3 
6.0 

5-5 
44 



General Manager Chinese Students' Quarterly 
Advertising Manager " " u 

Circulation Manager " " " 

Associate Manager " " " 



6.4 
5-i 
4.8 
3-9 



Chairman 
Secretary 
Treasurer 
Committeeman 



Annual Students' Conference 



7-9 
6.1 

5-7 
5-7 



Position 

President 
Manager 
Secretary 
Treasurer 
Chairman 
Secretary 
Treasurer 



Comparison with Individual Records 
Organization 
College Cosmopolitan Club 

Chinese Prohibition League 



43 
Poi?its 

6-3 
4-9 
4-5 
4-3 
5-3 
4-4 
4-3 



President 



Vice President 

Secretary 

Treasurer 

Committeeman 

Auditor 



Chinese Students' Professional Societies or Clubs, 
Such as Banking Club, Educational Club, Engi- 
neering Club, etc. 



6.2 

4-3 
47 
4-3 
3-5 

2.8 



President 



Vice President 

Secretary 

Treasurer 

Committeeman 

Auditor 



Alumni Association, Such as Nankai Alumni Asso- 
ciation, Soochow Alumni Association, Tsing Hua 
Alumni Association, etc. 



6-3 
4-3 
4.8 
4.1 
3-6 

2.8 



President 
Secretary 
Treasurer 



Chinese Patriotic Committee 



6-9 

5-6 
5-i 



President 
Vice President 
General Secretary 



Chinese Students' Christian Association 



7-3 
4.8 

7-3 



Chairman 
Secretary 
Treasurer 



Local College Y.M. C. A. 



4.6 
3-6 
3-1 



Cabinet Member Local College Y. M. C. A. 

Member Volunteer Band " " " 

Chairman College Students' Bible Class 

Leader College Students' Discussion Group 



2.7 
1.8 
3-0 
3-3 



44 



Position or Achievement 

Fellowship 

Scholarship 

Graduation with Honor 

Ph.D. 

Instructor 

Lecturer 

Assistant 

Member 

Member 

A.B. with 

A.B. with 



Chinese Students in America 

Scholarship 

Institution 



College or University 



Phi Beta Kappa Society 
Sigma Xi 

Magna Cum Laude 
Summa Cum Laude 



Points 



Posiition or Achievement 

Editor-in-Chief 

Associate Editor 

Contributor 

Reporter 

Editor-in-Chief 

Associate Editor 

Contributor 

Reporter 

Editor-in-Chief 

Associate Editor 

Contributor 

Reporter 

First Prize Essay 

Second Prize Essay 

First Prize 

Second Prize 

Member 



Knowledge of English 
Organization 
Chinese Students' Monthly 



"Christian China" 

American College Paper 

Chinese Students' Monthly 
College English Oratorical Contest 
College English Debating Team 



Points 

8.9 
6.0 
4-9 
34 
7.6 

5-3 
4-3 
3-4 
8.9 

6-5 
5-i 
3-7 
6.9 
5-6 
6.9 
5-6 
6.6 



Position 

Editor-in-Chief 
Associate Editor 
Contributor 
Reporter 



Knowledge of Chinese 

Organization 

Chinese Students' Quarterly 



Points 

8-3 
6.1 

4-9 
3-8 



Comparison with Individual Records 



45 



Position 


Organization 




Point 


Editor 


"Science" in Chinese 




7-8 


Contributor 


■ * ■ 




5-8 


Editor-in-Chief 


"Political Science Review' 


or "Cheng Hsueh 






Ts'ung K'an" 




7-1 


Editor 


una 


u u 


5-9 


Contributor 


u U ii 


a u 


5-1 


Contributor 


Shanghai Shun Pao 




5-0 


Contributor 


"The Renaissance" 




59 


Contributor 


"Eastern Miscellanies" 




5-7 



With the help of this scale, the individual records were turned 
into numerical values. If a student had several records in any one 
quality, then all the transmuted values were combined representing 
his total credit therein. These individual records, then, in terms of 
numerical values were correlated with the judgments of associates 
and the coefficients were represented in Table XIII. 

TABLE XIII 
Showing the Correlations of Judgments with Individual Records 



CORRELATION OF 



NO. OF CASES 



The Judgment of Associates with Individual Rec- 
ords in Scholarship 

The Judgment of Associates with Individual Rec- 
ords in Leadership 

The Judgment of Associates with Individual Rec- 
ords in Knowledge of English 

The Judgment of Associates with Individual Rec- 
ords in Knowledge of Chinese 



58 



U5 



.706 ±.044 
.623 ±.034 
.793 ±.038 
.543 ±.070 



From these correlation coefficients, it is evident that the judgment 
of associates agrees better with individual records than with other 
data heretofore given. This would indicate that the judgment was 
largely based upon a knowledge of the accomplishments of the person 
judged, and further that the acquaintance among any group of 
Chinese students in this study had reached the stage where thorough 
knowledge of one another's accomplishment was hardly to be 
doubted. 

2. A DISCUSSION ON THE VALIDITY OF THE JUDGMENT OF ASSOCIATES 

In order to find out which source of data agrees best with the judg- 



4 6 



Chinese Students in America 



ment, a resume of all the correlation coefficients showing the validity 
of the judgment from the previous chapters is shown in Table XIV. 



TABLE XIV 

Showing the Correlation of the Judgment with Test Scores, High School 
and College Marks, and Individual Records 



correlation of 


SCHOLAR- 
SHIP 


LEADER- 
SHIP 


KNOWLEDGE 
OF ENGLISH 


KNOWLEDGE 
OF CHINESE 


The Judgment with Test 


421 
.414 
.706 


.623 


•430 
•307 

•793 




The Judgment with High 


•374 


The Judgment with College 


The Judgment with Indi- 


•543 





This table shows that the judgment in scholarship is checked up 
three times; in English three times; in Chinese twice; and in 
leadership only once. It is also seen that judgments agree best 
with individual records and practically equally well with test scores, 
high school marks, and college marks. As has been hinted, this 
substantial correlation between the judgment and individual records 
shows conclusively the reliance of the former upon the latter. This 
reliance rids the judgment of personal prejudices and whims and 
adds a greater weight to it. 

The fact that the judgment in leadership is only checked up once 
raises the question as to whether its validity has been sufficiently 
proved. The answer is that any human trait like leadership par- 
takes of such elusive character that, for the present at least, the 
only way to judge or measure it is to resort to subjective opinions, 
directly or indirectly, of the largest possible number of competent 
judges. The procedure, in the light of the present investigation, 
must needs meet the following few requirements: (1) a thorough 
acquaintance of the judge with his subjects; (2) a sufficient number of 
judges (this investigation shows that a total of twelve judges will 
yield a self-correlation coefficient of about .90); (3) a fairly common 
understanding of the qualities to be judged; and (4) the use of 
rankings. 



CHAPTER VII 

YEARS SPENT IN AMERICA AS A FACTOR 

In the preceding chapters it has been shown that knowledge of 
English rather than knowledge of Chinese is more closely associated 
with success in America, academic and non-academic. The next 
question that comes consequent upon this conclusion is: How can 
knowledge of English be better secured? To put it differently, is it 
more profitable to spend more initial years studying English in 
China, or is it more profitable to spend more additional years in 
America? How is the number of years spent in America associated 
with scholarship, leadership, knowledge of English, and knowledge 
of Chinese? Questions 4 and 6 in the questionnaire sheet tell us the 
number of years a student spent in China in studying English and 
the time of his arrival in America. With the data supplied there- 
from, it is possible to work out the correlation coefficients as shown 
in Table XV. 

TABLE XV 

Showing the Correlation of the Number of Years Spent in America with 

Scholarship, Leadership, Knowledge of English, and Knowledge 

of Chinese 



correlation of no. of cases 


r 




276 
279 
282 
263 


.H9±.040 
.2 18 ± .038 
.205^.038 

— .090 d= .042 




Years Spent in America with Knowledge of English 
Years Spent in America with Knowledge of Chinese 



It must also be stated here for later comparisons that the correla- 
tion between the initial number of years spent in studying English 
in China and the knowledge of English in America is .212 with 277 
cases, while the correlation between the additional number of years 
spent in America and the knowledge of English is .205 with 282 
cases, as shown in Table XV. The correlation between the initial 
number of years spent in China in studying English and the years 



48 Chinese Students in America 

spent in America is —.522 with 287 cases. If we designate the 
knowledge of English in America as 1, the initial years in China in 
studying English as 2, and the years spent in America as 3, then 
by using the usual partial correlation formula, 

rn — ru • r 2 3 

^12 .3 — 



V(i-r* I3 ) (i-r\ 3 ) 

the following two partial correlation coefficients are yielded: 

ri2.3 =• 382 (1) 
/-i3.2=.378 (2) 

Equation (1) reads that the correlation between the knowledge of 
English in America and the initial years spent in China in studying 
English, with the influence of the disturbing factor of years spent 
in America eliminated or equalized, is .382. Equation (2) reads that 
the correlation between the knowledge of English and the additional 
years spent in America, with the influence of the disturbing factor 
of the initial years spent in China in studying English eliminated or 
equalized, is .378. 

Interpretation of the correlation is important. In the first place, 
it should be noticed that neither the initial years spent in studying 
English in China nor the additional years spent in America (it must 
be noted that these additional years are not spent primarily in 
studying the English langauge, but in acquiring it as a matter of 
course) has any very high correlation with the knowledge of English. 
This would point to the fact that knowledge of English does not 
depend, to any great extent, upon the number of years spent in 
studying it before coming to this country, other factors such as 
individual difference and environmental effect being, perhaps, of 
much greater influence. This is what we expect. 

In the second place, but in a more striking manner, it should be 
noticed that the two partial correlation coefficients of .382 and .378 
would show that the initial years spent in studying English in China 
and the additional years spent in America have practically an equal 
influence upon one's knowledge of English. This does not argue, 
however, that the initial years spent in America in studying English 
would have the same effect upon one's knowledge of English as the 
initial years spent in China in studying it. In all probability, the 
former would exert a much greater influence. The significance of 



Years Spent in America as a Factor 49 

these two coefficients lies in the fact that after one has spent a 
reasonable number of years in studying English in China, so as to 
acquire a knowledge of speaking and reading, then if he comes to 
America the number of years he stays here will not mean more to 
his further acquisition of English than his initial years in China 
would mean to his initial improvement in it. 

The low correlation between the number of years spent in America 
with both scholarship and leadership (>= .119; r= .218) bring us to 
a discussion of the problem of preparing students in China that are 
to be sent to America. We have seen that scholarship and leadership 
in America depend largely upon knowledge of English; that knowl- 
edge of English does not depend so much (as we presumed) upon 
the years of stay in America provided a reasonable number of years 
is spent in China in studying it. Thus, scholarship, leadership, 
and knowledge of English, which are more or less substantially 
correlated with one another, all have an equally very low correlation 
with the years of stay in America. Substantially, the years spent 
in America as a factor have very little significance in respect to the 
qualities in our study. 

The correlation of — .552 between the years spent in China in 
studying English and the number of years spent in this country 7 is 
merely a result of chance. It can be explained by the fact that when 
the study was made more than one-third of the students in this study 
had been in this country for a short time, about 6 months, and had , 
nevertheless, spent about five or six years in China in studying Eng- 
lish; at the same time there were those older students who had been 
in America long and who had spent generally fewer years in China 
in studying English. This phenomenon indicates clearly that stu- 
dents of more recent years had a more thorough preparation in 
English in China than those of the older days. 

The very slightly negative correlation (r= — .090) between the 
years spent in America and knowledge of Chinese simply means 
that knowledge of Chinese, once acquired, whatever its amount 
may be, does not decrease with the lack of practice resulting from 
staying a few years longer in America. The correlation —.090 is 
so small that it amounts practically to zero. Its significance should 
rid us of the current fear that a few years' stay in America tends to 
result in the retrogression of knowledge of Chinese. What actually 
happens is in all probability that, through lack of practice, the 



^o Chinese Students in America 

ability of reading and writing Chinese temporarily lies in a state of 
dormancy which to some people may seem to be in the state of 
retrogression but which, upon a renewal of study and practice in 
China, will regain its normal condition. 



CHAPTER VIII 

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 

Some of the larger conclusions of the study may be restated as 
follows: 

1 . Scholarship is correlated rather high with leadership (r = .592) . 

2. Knowledge of English is correlated rather high with both 
scholarship (^=.719) and leadership (^=.679). 

3. Knowledge of Chinese is correlated low with both scholarship 
(r = .389) and leadership (r= .309) . 

4. Knowledge of English and knowledge of Chinese have a very 
slightly negative correlation or are practically uncorrelated, or 
independent of each other (r= — .024). 

Other findings that are of import are (1) scholarship, leadership, 
and knowledge of English are all correlated low with the length of 
time spent in America (r—.ng; r=.2i8; r=.205 respectively); 
(2) knowledge of Chinese is practically uncorrelated with the length 
of time spent in America (r= — .090); and (3) the initial years spent 
in studying English in China and the additional years spent in 
America both have equally low correlations with knowledge of 
English (r= .382 and r= .378 respectively). 

In the light of the foregoing conclusions, a few suggestions may 
be here presented which may be of use to a consideration of the 
policies governing the process of preparation and selection of Chinese 
students to be sent to America. 

In the first place, since knowledge of English is correlated rather 
high with both scholarship and leadership and since knowledge of 
Chinese is correlated rather low with both of them, it is evident 
that in the preparation of Chinese students to be sent to America 
more emphasis should be placed upon knowledge of English and 
less upon the knowledge of Chinese if these students are expected 
to do well in scholarship and leadership in America. It is to be 
regretted that it has not been possible to find out the intelligence 
of these students in this study, but it is very likely and safe to say 
that intelligence has a high correlation with both knowledge of 
English and of Chinese and that if intelligence is "partialed out," 



52 Chinese Students in America 

there will still be a fair correlation of knowledge of English with 
both scholarship and leadership; but there will be perhaps a zero 
correlation of knowledge of Chinese with both scholarship and 
leadership. Thus the scholarship and leadership of a Chinese stu- 
dent in America is determined by intelligence and knowledge of 
English, while knowledge of Chinese is almost indifferent to the 
attainment of both. While this is true, it by no means proposes to 
neglect the study of Chinese. Knowledge of Chinese, while it is 
impotent in the career of a Chinese student in America, will certainly 
be important upon his return to China. For this reason, it is suggested 
that in the preparation of Chinese students to be sent to America 
attention should be directed to an equal attainment of knowledge 
of both English and Chinese so that these students not only will 
best succeed during their period of education in America by means 
of their knowledge of English but also will do well during their entire 
life of service in China by means of their knowledge of Chinese. 

In the second place, since knowledge of English and knowledge of 
Chinese are uncorrelated or independent of each other, it will be 
in the future worth our greatest effort to teach these two languages 
in such wise that improvement in one will be associated, and if pos- 
sible, closely associated with, improvement in the other. Besides 
the schools giving equal emphasis upon both English and Chinese, 
there are many other schools in China that are unfortunately divided 
into two extremes: one places the emphasis on the study of Chinese 
at the expense of the study of English and the other does just the 
reverse. The suggestion is to build up a reasonably secure founda- 
tion in Chinese at an early period in a student's school life and then, 
but not until then, to take up the study of English in a rather sys- 
tematic fashion until a good speaking and reading knowledge of 
English is adequately attained. When such is the case, it is highly 
probable that the correlation between knowledge of both English 
and Chinese will be positive. 

In the third place, since scholarship, leadership, and knowledge 
of English all have low correlations with the length of time spent 
in America, it is evident that these traits are affected only to a small 
extent by a longer stay in America, and that they are more or less 
constant, just as intelligence with which they must be highly asso- 
ciated. One of the unsolved problems in connection with the sending 
of Chinese students to America is the number of years they should 



Conclusions and Suggestions 53 

stay here. Approximately it varies from one to ten years. Inas- 
much as a longer stay will bring with it only slight improvement in 
scholarship, leadership, and knowledge of English, and inasmuch as 
it will involve greater financial expenses as well as prolong the 
detachment of these students from their own country, it is here 
suggested that it would be desirable to shorten the period of their 
sojourn in America. But the shortening of the period necessitates 
maturity of both knowledge and age. If a student is sent to America 
to begin with the Freshman year in a college, it will require on the 
average seven years to finish the graduate work, which is entirely 
too long. It is therefore suggested that in order to acquire advanced 
knowledge in a short period, say, three or four years, it is almost 
imperative to send out only those students who have received the 
A.B. degree in China or who have had a training which will qualify 
them to enter the graduate schools in America. This plan of send- 
ing out advanced and mature students for a short period of three 
or four years of stay in America will bring with it at once many 
advantages: (1) it will save the educational cost; (2) it will avoid 
the danger of many students becoming unfamiliar with their own 
country, less appreciative of their own culture and civilization, and 
therefore less ready to render their service to it; (3) it will take in 
only students who will better judge Western civilization and 
can thus make a better selection of what is desirable; and (4) it will 
include only those students who, because of their maturity, have 
already, before their coming to America, gained a considerable 
respect of their own people and who, therefore, upon their return, 
will make their influence more readily felt and their work more 
productive. While this suggestion is borne out by the results of 
this study, it happily meets with the rising consciousness among 
educators in China which is gradually expressing itself in the process 
of reshaping educational policies respecting the education of Chinese 
students in America. 



APPENDIX 

The following are samples of tables containing the original data 
used in this study, which are now kept in the Library of Teachers 
College, Columbia University. 



TABLE I A 

The Judgment in Sigma Values and the Number of Judges in Each Case 
for 664 Chinese Students in America in the Qualities of (I) 
Scholarship, (II) Leadership, (III) Knowledge of English, and 
(IV) Knowledge of Chinese 

The first column under each quality is the number of judges; the second column 
under each quality is the average value of their judgments transmuted in terms of 
sigma. The table should read "Individual i was rated by 3 judges in Scholarship, 
the average of the judgments being .18 sigma; he was not judged at all in 
Leadership; he was judged by 3 judges in Knowledge of English, the average of 
the judgments being .73 sigma; he was not rated at all in Knowledge of Chinese." 



Ind. 








Ind. 










No. I 


II 


III 


IV 


No. I 


II 


III 


IV 


1 3 .18 




3 73 




34 8 .39 


8 1. 10 


7 48 


7 --34 


2 4 .25 


3 --62 


4 -49 


4 -32 


35 8- 


20 


7 -.09 


7 --33 


8 1.46 


3 3-49 


3 -20 


3-44 


4 -36 


36 8 


17 


7 ..28 


7 -15 


6 -34 


4 3--6i 


4 70 


3--5I 


3-44 


37 6- 


07 


5 --25 


6 .01 


5-1.22 


5 


3 --89 


4-75 




38 7- 


U 


7 -05 


7 1-85 


5-1-02 


6 3 -.85 


3-1-25 


3 -.68 


3-1. 12 


39 8- 


07 


8 49 


8 -55 


7 .06 


7 3 --38 


3 -43 




3 -21 


40 7 


28 


5-42 


6 -.55 


6-. 13 


8 


3 -47 


3 1-5" 


3-74 


41 7- 


78 


7 -27 


7 .08 


6 — .41 


9 3 1-35 


3 -37 


3-05 


3 1-37 


42 7- 


20 


6 -.69 


7 72 


7 -.24 








TABLE II A 








The Scores in English Tests for 42 Chinese 


Students in America 


I. Thorndike Alpha 2 


Part II. III. Reading Test II. 




II. Reading Test I. 


IV. Thorndike Vocabulary 








Test 






Ind. 








Ind. 








No. I 


II 


III 


IV 


No. I 


II 


III 


IV 


16 8.6 


70 


37-5 


50 


301 8.6 


74 


12 


128 


17 7.7 


80.5 


50 


163 


305 7-9 


67-5 


34-5 


125 


18 7.1 


45 


25 


50 


306 8.6 


78 


64-5 


41 


106 7.0 


5i-5 


15 


65 


312 8.4 


66.5 


23 


104 


no 8.1 


77 





158 


385 77 




57 





133 



60 



Appendix 



55 



Marks in 


High School in C 


HINA 


FOR 78 


Chinese Stx 


DENTS 


in America 


I. General Average 


for Four 


Years. 


II. Marks 


in English 


FOR 


III. Marks 


EN 


Chinese 


for Four 


Years. 


Four Years. 






Ind. 






Ind. 








Ind. 








No. I 


II 


III 


No. 


I 


II 


Ill 


No. 


I 


II 


III 


12 84 


79 


84 


169 


83 


82 


87 


390 


85 


83 


89 


16 75 


75 


86 


170 


84 


89 


82 


403 


86 


86 


94 


19 76 


81 


84 


174 


83 


81 


84 


406 


78 


77 


78 


64 85 


87 


75 


177 


74 


89 


89 


414 


87 


82 


76 


67 82 


84 


81 


188 


82 


79 


82 


416 


88 


93 


94 



TABLE IV A 
College Marks in American Colleges for 122 Chinese Students in America 



Ind. 


General 


No. 


Average 


12 


88 


16 


70 


18 


75 


19 


11 


46 


68 



Ind. 


General 


No. 


Average 


133 


85 


134 


82 


137 


79 


154 


86 


165 


85 



Ind. 


General 


No. 


Average 


284 


89 


289 


9i 


296 


89 


299 


92 


301 


79 


:a on 


a Point Scale 



TABLE V A 
Individual Records of 156 Chinese Students in America on 

for the Qualities of (I) Scholarship; (II) Leadership; 
(III) Knowledge of English; and (IV) Knowledge 
of Chinese 
I Ind. 



Ind. 
No. 

1 

7 
8 

9 
10 



I 
5-2 
7.0 

5-2 



II 

20.4 
19.0 

17.8 
4.8 



III 



IV 



No. 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


133 


1 1. 6 


10.5 




24.0 


134 




19.0 






137 




13-5 




18.3 


159 




9-5 






160 




22.5 







TABLE VI A 

Length of Time in Terms of Months that 286 Chinese Students in America 

(I) Studied English before Coming to America and (II) Have 

Been in America 



Ind. 






Ind. 






Ind. 






No. 


I 


II 


No. 


I 


II 


No. 


I 


II 


1 


84 


19 


90 


60 


44 


179 


96 


19 


7 


48 


61 


92 


36 


59 


183 


94 


20 


8 


120 


19 


93 


84 


8 


184 


72 


43 


9 


60 


19 


94 


36 


125 


186 


24 


3i 


10 


48 


55 


95 





151 


187 


84 


19 



VITA 

Jennings Pinkwei Chu was born at Kiangsun, Chekiang, 
China, December 2, 1895. He received his early education in the 
modern elementary and middle schools of Chekiang. He went to 
Tsing Hua College, Peking, in 191 1, graduating from that college 
in 1916. In the same year, he was sent out by Tsing Hua College 
to the United States, and studied at Johns Hopkins University 
from 1916-1919, where he received his A.B. degree in 1918 and was 
a graduate student for the year 1918-1919. He was also a student 
at the Cornell University Summer School in 1917 and at the Chicago 
University Summer School in 1919. He studied at Teachers College, 
Columbia University, from 1919-1922; received his A.M. degree 
from Teachers College in 1920, and was Research Scholar in Teach- 
ers College during the year 1 921-1922. He was Lecturer in Chinese 
Language at Xew York University, 1920-1922. 



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